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WORLD CULTURES & FOLK CUSTOMS - 4

SIMO JELACA, Ph.D.

FOREWORD

This book summarizes information about culture and customs of different nations. Noticeable differences in customs are among Christian, Islamic and Buddhist’s nations, although in all prevails intention for nice and greatest.

It will be too much to include every country, as there are similarities among many nations of the same or close nationalities. Characteristic are Russia, Ukraine, Serbia, Belarus, Croatia, Montenegro, Macedonia, or as well as Germany and Austria. The similar conclusion values for Latin nations, among themselves too.

Readers will find basic information about each country, such as its location and size, population and Ethnic Make-up, Religion, Climate, Language, Etiquettes and others.

This book can equally be used for travelers, either as tourists or business people, therefore everyone will find necessary information about Etiquette of people at their homes as well as at the business.

My intention was to find as much good information as possible. How much I have succeeded readers will judge it.

Author

WORLD CULTURES AND FOLKCUSTOMS

SIMO JELACA, Ph.D.

CHINA

CULTURE AND FOLK CUSTOMS

Facts and Statistics

Population: Over 1.39 Billion

Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 1%-2%, Christian 3%-4%

Size: 9,596.960 sq.km.

Government: Communist state

Capitol: Beijing population about 20 million.

China is an extremely large country, and the customs and traditions of its people vary by geography and ethnicity.

More than 1.3 billion people live in China, representing 56 ethnic minority groups. The largest group is the Han Chinese, with about 1.24 billion people. Other groups include the Tibetans, the Mongols, the Manchus, the Naxi, and the Hezhen, which is the smallest group.

Location and Geography

China has a land area of 9,596,960 square kilometers, making it the world's third largest nation. It borders thirteen countries, including Russia and Mongolia to the north, India to the southwest, and Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam to the south. To the east, it borders the Yellow Sea, the South China Sea, and the East China Sea. Eastern Asia bordering Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Mongolia 4,677 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km

The climate is extremely diverse, ranging from tropical in the south to subarctic in the north. In the west, the land consists mostly of mountains, high plateaus, and desert. The eastern regions are characterized by plains, deltas, and hills. The highest point is Mount Everest, on the border between Tibet and Nepal, the tallest mountain in the world.

The Yangtze, the longest river in the country, forms the official dividing line between north and south China. The Yangtze sometimes floods badly, as does the Yellow River to the north, which, because of the damage it has caused, is called "China's sorrow."

The country is divided into two regions: Inner China and Outer China. Historically, the two have been very separate. The Great Wall, which was built in the fifteenth century to protect the country against military invasions, marks the division. While the areas of the two regions are roughly equal, 95 percent of the population lives in Inner China.

The country is home to several endangered species, including the giant panda, the golden monkey, several species of tiger, the Yangtze alligator, and the red-crowned crane. While outside organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund have made efforts to save these animals, their preservation is not a top priority for the government.

Demography

China is the most populous nation on earth; in 2000, the estimated population was over 1.35 billion, one-fifth of the world's population. Of these people, 92 percent are Han Chinese; the remaining 8 percent are people of Zhuang, Uyhgur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities. Sichuan, in the central region, is the most densely populated province. Many of the minority groups live in Outer China, although the distribution has changed slightly over the years. The government has supported Han migration to minority territories in an effort to spread the population more evenly across the country and to control the minority groups in those areas, which sometimes are perceived as a threat to national stability. The rise in population among the minorities significantly outpaces that of the Han, as the minority groups are exempt from the government's one-child policy.

Culture includes religion, food, style, language, marriage, music, morals and many other things that make up how a group acts and interacts. Here is a brief overview of some elements of Chinese culture.

Religion

The Chinese Communist Party that rules the nation is officially atheist, though it is gradually becoming more tolerant of religions. Currently there are only five official religions. Any religion other than Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism are illegal, even though the Chinese constitution states that people are allowed freedom of religion. The gradual tolerance of religion has only started to progress in the past few decades.

About a quarter of the people practice Taoism and Confucianism and other traditional religions. There are also small numbers of Buddhists, Muslims and Christians. Although numerous Protestant and Catholic ministries have been active in the country since the early 19th century, they have made little progress in converting Chinese to these religions.

Language

There are seven major groups of dialects of the Chinese language, which each have their own variations. Mandarin dialects are spoken by 71.5 percent of the population, followed by Wu (8.5 percent), Yue (also called Cantonese; 5 percent), Xiang (4.8 percent), Min (4.1 percent), Hakka (3.7 percent) and Gan (2.4 percent).

Chinese dialects are very different. Chinese is rather more like a language family than a single language made up of a number of regional forms. The Chinese dialectal complex is in many ways analogous to the Romance language family in Europe. To take an extreme example, there is probably as much difference between the dialects of Peking [Beijing] and Chaozhou as there is between Italian and French.

The official national language of China is Pŭtōnghuà, a type of Mandarin spoken in the capital Beijing, according to the Order of the President of the People's Republic of China. Many Chinese are also fluent in English.

Food

Like other aspects of Chinese life, cuisine is heavily influenced by geography and ethnic diversity. Among the main styles of Chinese cooking are Cantonese, which features stir-fried dishes, and Szechuan, which relies heavily on use of peanuts, sesame paste and ginger and is known for its spiciness.

Rice is not only a major food source in China; it is also a major element that helped grow their society, The Chinese word for rice is fan, which also means "meal," and it is a staple of their diet, as are bean sprouts, cabbage and scallions. Because they do not consume a lot of meat — occasionally pork or chicken — tofu is a main source of protein for the Chinese.

The Arts

Chinese art is greatly influenced by the country’s rich spiritual and mystical history. Many sculptures and paintings depict spiritual figures of Buddhism. Many musical instruments are integral to Chinese culture, including the flute-like xun and the guqin, which is in the zither family.

Eastern-style martial arts were also developed in China, and it is the birthplace of kung fu. This fighting technique is based on animal movements and was created in the mid-1600s. Ancient Chinese were avid writers and philosophers — especially during the Ming and Qing dynasties — and that is reflected in the country’s rich liturgical history.

Customs and celebrations

The largest festival — also called the Spring Festival — marks the beginning of the Lunar New Year. It falls between mid-January and mid-February and is a time to honor ancestors. During the 15-day celebration, the Chinese do something every day to welcome the new-year, such as eat rice congee and mustard greens to cleanse the body. The holiday is marked with fireworks and parades featuring dancers dressed as dragons.

Many people make pilgrimages to Confucius' birthplace in Shandong Province on his birthday, Sept. 28. The birthday of Guanyin, the goddess of mercy, is observed by visiting Taoist temples. It falls between late March and late April. Similar celebrations mark the birthday of Mazu, the goddess of the sea (also known as Tianhou), in May or June. The Moon Festival is celebrated in September or October with fireworks, paper lanterns and moon gazing.

Confucianism
Confucianism is a system of behaviors and ethics that stress the obligations of people towards one another based upon their relationship. The basic tenets are based upon five different relationships:

• Ruler and subject

• Husband and wife

• Parents and children

• Brothers and sisters

• Friend and friend

Confucianism stresses duty, sincerity, loyalty, honor, filial piety, respect for age and seniority. Through maintaining harmonious relations as individuals, society itself becomes stable.

Collectivism vs. Individualism

• In general, the Chinese are a collective society with a need for group affiliation, whether to their family, school, work group, or country.

• In order to maintain a sense of harmony, they will act with decorum at all times and will not do anything to cause someone else public embarrassment.

• They are willing to subjugate their own feelings for the good of the group.

This is often observed by the use of silence in very structured meetings. If someone disagrees with what another person says, rather than disagree publicly, the person will remain quiet. This gives face to the other person, while speaking up would make both parties lose face.

Collectivism vs. Individualism

• In general, the Chinese are a collective society with a need for group affiliation, whether to their family, school, work group, or country.

• In order to maintain a sense of harmony, they will act with decorum at all times and will not do anything to cause someone else public embarrassment.

• They are willing to subjugate their own feelings for the good of the group.

• This is often observed by the use of silence in very structured meetings. If someone disagrees with what another person says, rather than disagree publicly, the person will remain quiet. This gives face to the other person, while speaking up would make both parties lose face.

Meeting Etiquette

• Greetings are formal and the oldest person is always greeted first.

• Handshakes are the most common form of greeting with foreigners.

• Many Chinese will look towards the ground when greeting someone.

• Address the person by an honorific title and their surname. If they want to move to a first-name basis, they will advise you which name to use.

• The Chinese have a terrific sense of humor. They can laugh at themselves most readily if they have a comfortable relationship with the other person. Be ready to laugh at yourself given the proper circumstances.

Gift Giving Etiquette

In general, gifts are given at Chinese New Year, weddings, births and more recently (because of marketing), birthdays.

• The Chinese like food and a nice food basket will make a great gift.

• Do not give scissors, knives or other cutting utensils as they indicate the severing of the relationship.

• Do not give clocks, handkerchiefs or straw sandals as they are associated with funerals and death.

• Do not give flowers, as many Chinese associate these with funerals.

• Do not wrap gifts in white, blue or black paper.

• Four is an unlucky number so do not give four of anything. Eight is the luckiest number, so giving eight of something brings luck to the recipient.

• Always present gifts with two hands.

• Gifts are not opened when received.

• Gifts may be refused three times before they are accepted.

Dining Etiquette

• The Chinese prefer to entertain in public places rather than in their homes, especially when entertaining foreigners.

• If you are invited to their house, consider it a great honor. If you must turn down such an honor, it is considered polite to explain the conflict in your schedule so that your actions are not taken as a slight.

• Arrive on time.

• Remove your shoes before entering the house.

• Bring a small gift to the hostess.

• Eat well to demonstrate that you are enjoying the food!

• Table manners:

• Learn to use chopsticks.

• Wait to be told where to sit. The guest of honor will be given a seat facing the door.

• The host begins eating first.

• You should try everything that is offered to you.

• Never eat the last piece from the serving tray.

• Be observant to other peoples' needs.

• Chopsticks should be returned to the chopstick rest after every few bites and when you drink or stop to speak.

• The host offers the first toast.

• Do not put bones in your bowl. Place them on the table or in a special bowl for that purpose.

• Hold the rice bowl close to your mouth while eating.

• Do not be offended if a Chinese person makes slurping or belching sounds; it merely indicates that they are enjoying their food.

• There are no strict rules about finishing all the food in your bowl.

Tipping Etiquette:

Tipping is becoming more commonplace, especially with younger workers although older workers still consider it an insult. Leaving a few coins is usually sufficient.

Business Etiquette and Protocol in China

Relationships & Communication

• The Chinese don't like doing business with companies they don't know, so working through an intermediary is crucial. This could be an individual or an organization who can make a formal introduction and vouch for the reliability of your company.

• Before arriving in China send materials (written in Chinese) that describe your company, its history, and literature about your products and services. The Chinese often use intermediaries to ask questions that they would prefer not to ask directly.

• Business relationships are built formally after the Chinese get to know you.

• Be very patient. It takes a considerable amount of time and is bound up with enormous bureaucracy.

• The Chinese see foreigners as representatives of their company rather than as individuals.

• Rank is extremely important in business relationships and you must keep rank differences in mind when communicating.

• Gender bias is nonexistent in business.

• Never lose sight of the fact that communication is official, especially in dealing with someone of higher rank. Treating them too informally, especially in front of their peers, may well ruin a potential deal.

• The Chinese prefer face-to-face meetings rather than written or telephonic communication.

• Meals and social events are not the place for business discussions. There is a demarcation between business and socializing in China, so try to be careful not to intertwine the two.

Business Meeting Etiquette

• Appointments are necessary and, if possible, should be made between one-to-two months in advance, preferably in writing.

• If you do not have a contact within the company, use an intermediary to arrange a formal introduction. Once the introduction has been made, you should provide the company with information about your company and what you want to accomplish at the meeting.

• You should arrive at meetings on time or slightly early. The Chinese view punctuality as a virtue. Arriving late is an insult and could negatively affect your relationship

• Pay great attention to the agenda as each Chinese participant has his or her own agenda that they will attempt to introduce.

• Send an agenda before the meeting so your Chinese colleagues have the chance to meet with any technical experts prior to the meeting. Discuss the agenda with your translator/intermediary prior to submission.

• Each participant will take an opportunity to dominate the floor for lengthy periods without appearing to say very much of anything that actually contributes to the meeting. Be patient and listen. There could be subtle messages being transmitted that would assist you in allaying fears of on-going association.

• Meetings require patience. Mobile phones ring frequently and conversations tend to be boisterous. Never ask the Chinese to turn off their mobile phones as this causes you both to lose face.

• Guests are generally escorted to their seats, which are in descending order of rank. Senior people generally sit opposite senior people from the other side.

• It is imperative that you bring your own interpreter, especially if you plan to discuss legal or extremely technical concepts as you can brief the interpreter prior to the meeting.

• Written material should be available in both English and Chinese, using simplified characters. Be very careful about what is written. Make absolutely certain that written translations are accurate and cannot be misinterpreted.

• Visual aids are useful in large meetings and should only be done with black type on white background. Colors have special meanings and if you are not careful, your colour choice could work against you.

• Presentations should be detailed and factual and focus on long-term benefits. Be prepared for the presentation to be a challenge.
  Business Negotiation

• Only senior members of the negotiating team will speak. Designate the most senior person in your group as your spokesman for the introductory functions.

• Business negotiations occur at a slow pace.

• Be prepared for the agenda to become a jumping off point for other discussions.

• Chinese are non-confrontational. They will not overtly say 'no', they will say 'they will think about it' or 'they will see'.

• Chinese negotiations are process oriented. They want to determine if relationships can develop to a stage where both parties are comfortable doing business with the other.

• Decisions may take a long time, as they require careful review and consideration.

• Under no circumstances should you lose your temper or you will lose face and irrevocably damage your relationship.

• Do not use high-pressure tactics. You might find yourself outmaneuvered.

• Business is hierarchical. Decisions are unlikely to be made during the meetings you attend.

• The Chinese are shrewd negotiators.

• Your starting price should leave room for negotiation.
  What to Wear?

• Business attire is conservative and unpretentious.

• Men should wear dark coloured, conservative business suits.

• Women should wear conservative business suits or dresses with a high neckline.

• Women should wear flat shoes or shoes with very low heels.

• Bright colors should be avoided.

Business Cards

• Business cards are exchanged after the initial introduction.

• Have one side of your business card translated into Chinese using simplified Chinese characters that are printed in gold ink since gold is an auspicious color.

• Your business card should include your title. If your company is the oldest or largest in your country, that fact should be on your card as well.

• Hold the card in both hands when offering it, Chinese side facing the recipient.

• Examine a business card before putting it on the table next to you or in a business card case.

• Never write on someone's card unless so directed.

Symbolism

The flag has a red background with a yellow star in the upper left-hand corner and four smaller yellow stars in a crescent formation to its right. The color red symbolizes the revolution. The large star stands for the Communist Party, and the four small stars symbolize the Chinese people; the position of the stars stands for a populace united in support of the state.

The main symbol of the nation is the dragon, a fantastical creature made up of seven animals. It is accorded the power to change size at will and to bring the rain that farmers need. New Year's festivities often include a line of people in a dragon costume. Another patriotic symbol is the Great Wall. Spanning a length of 6,500 km, it is the only human-made structure visible from the moon. Work began on the wall in the third century B.C.E. and continued during the Ming Dynasty in the fifteenth century. The emperor conscripted criminals and ordinary farmers for the construction; many died while working and their bodies were buried in the wall. It has become a powerful symbol of both the oppression the Chinese have endured and the heights their civilization has achieved.

Ethnic Relations

China is for the most part an extremely homogeneous society composed of a people who share one language, culture, and history. The government recognizes fifty-five minority groups that have their own distinct cultures and traditions. Most of those groups live in Outer China, because the Han have, over the centuries, forced them into those harsh, generally less desirable lands.

Beijing, the capital, is the second largest urban center. Its history goes back three thousand years, and it has been the capital since the late thirteenth century. Beijing is divided into the Inner City (to the north) and the Outer City (to the south). The Inner City contains the Imperial City, which contains the Forbidden City. This spectacular architectural aggregation of temples, palaces, and man-made lakes, whose construction began in 1406, is where the emperor and his court resided. Although it once was off limits to civilians, today sightseers and tourists can admire its gardens, terraces, and pavilions. Tiananmen Square, the site of several demonstrations and events, as well as the location of Mao's tomb, is at one end of the Forbidden City. Despite the city's size, it is still possible to navigate Beijing without a car, and most people do; bicycles are one of the most common modes of transportation—this cuts down greatly on air pollution.

Basic Economy

In 1978, the country began the slow process of shifting from a Soviet-style economy to a more free market system, and in twenty years managed to quadruple the gross domestic product (GDP) and become the second largest economy in the world. However, the decentralization of the economy has often conflicted with the tight reign exercised by the highly centralized political system.The labor force consists of 700 million people, of whom 50 percent work in agriculture, 24 percent in industry, and 26 percent in services.

Marriage

According to custom, marriages are arranged by the couple's parents. While this system is less rigid than it once was, it is still common for young people to use matchmakers. People take a pragmatic approach to marriage, and even those who chose their own spouses often take practical considerations as much as romantic ones into account.

Weddings are usually large, expensive affairs paid for by the groom's family. For those who can afford it, Western-style weddings are popular, with the bride in a white gown and the groom in a suit and tie.

The legal age for marriage is twenty for women and twenty-two for men. A marriage law enacted by the communists in 1949 gave women the right to choose their husbands and file for divorce. While it is difficult to obtain a divorce, rates are rising.

Domestic Unit

It is common for several generations to live together under one roof. After marriage, a woman traditionally leaves her parents' home and becomes part of her husband's family. The husband's mother runs the household and sometimes treats a new daughter-in-law harshly. Although today practical reasons compel most children to leave the parents' home, the oldest son often stays, as it is his duty to care for his aging parents. Even today, many young adults continue to live with their parents after marriage, partly because of a housing shortage in the cities.

Inheritance

The estate generally passes to the oldest son. Since the communists came to power in 1949, women have been able to inherit property.

The Chinese have long been known for their scientific accomplishments; many discoveries and inventions credited to Western scientists were first made in China. Among those inventions are the seism scope (an instrument used to detect earthquakes), first created in 132 C.E. the mechanical clock (1088), and the compass (eleventh century). A Chinese alchemist discovered gunpowder by accident in the eleventh century. Before its use in firearms was developed, its use was in fireworks. Paper was invented in China in the first century B.C.E. woodblock printing in the eighth century C.E. , and movable type in the eleventh century.

Literature

Classical poems express balance through both rhyme and tone as well as through the physical layout of the characters on the page. The oldest known anthology of poetry, The Book of Songs, was put together in 600 B.C.E. One of the first individual poets, whose work is still read today, is Qu Yuan, best known for his piece called Li Sao, or The Lament.
Writing is considered the highest art form, and calligraphy is said to be the deepest expression of a person's character.

China has been known for sculpture and pottery since before the earliest dynasties.Bronze vessels have been used for thousands of years.
Embroidery is practiced by women who decorate clothes, shoes, and bed linens with colorful, elaborate designs of animals and flowers.

Medicine and Health Care

Traditional medicine is still widely practiced.All natural elements, including human beings, are thought to be made up of yin (the female force) and yang (the male force).Western medical facilities are much more accessible in the cities than in the countryside.

Health conditions have improved significantly since 1949. Life expectancy has risen, and many diseases, including plague, smallpox, cholera, and typhus, have been eliminated. Smoking is a growing health concern, particularly since American cigarette companies have begun large-scale marketing campaigns. HIV and AIDS are increasingly a problem, particularly in Yunnan province, which borders Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. It is exacerbated by prostitution, a rise in intravenous drug use, and lack of education.

It will be continued...

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