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ALEXANDRIA LIBRARY

(Origin and Suffering)

Simo Jelača, Ph.D.

Introduction

While preparing the works "Giants of Civilization" (1) and "Traces of Great Discoveries" (2), I became interested in the fate of the Great Library of Alexandria. The impression is that the secret of the burning of the Great Library, Julius Caesar, is still kept by the Vatican apocrypha*.

Creation of the Library

The construction of the city at the mouth of the Nile in the Mediterranean, with the island of Pharos, was proposed by the first Greek poet Homer (around 800-750 BC?), which was accepted only by Alexander the Great (24) and ordered its construction in 331 BC. AD. Construction began in the village of Rakotis, including the island of Pharos, next to which two harbors were built. To the south of the city was Lake Mareotis, from where the city was supplied with fresh water. Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) also ordered the building of the Great Library and named the city after himself Alexandria and declared it the capital of Egypt, but he never saw it in person. He died in 323 BC at the age of 33. Alexandria soon became the largest city in the Western world, the city of papyri and the center of the book trade. With the arrival of Alexander in Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia and all the way to today's Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Greek language, previous knowledge and Greek culture (Hellenic Age) came. These nations began to mix with each other and enrich themselves intellectually. The city of Alexandria expanded and became increasingly attractive to scholars in Greece and other parts of the world. As part of the construction of the city, the Great Library (Library of Alexandria) and the Museum were built, which over time became a center of scientific studies. Within a year (323-322 BC), Alexander the Great and his teacher Aristotle (384-322 BC) (3) were dead, and Alexander's generals, of Greco-Macedonian origin , they shared power in Egypt, since the Ptolemaic dynasty came. who ruled Egypt for almost 300 years (323-30 BC).

The construction of the Library and Museum was started by Ptolemy the First-Soter (367-283 BC), around 290-283 BC. (3), and continued by Ptolemy II Philadelphus-Soter (309-246 B.C.), in the aristocratic part of Bruceton, royal in the part of the city called Serapeion, along the Mediterranean coast. in the style of Aristotle's Lyceum **, right next to each other. The library also had its second part, called the sister library, built according to a similar content, it had: promenades, gardens, rooms for common lunches, reading rooms, lecture halls (amphitheaters) and meeting rooms (5).

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*Apocrypha = Writings or books that the church does not display or recognize as legal.

Their origins are considered mysterious, hidden from the public (4).

** Lyceum = School with gardens where philosophy according to Aristotle was taught in Athens.

This content and arrangement of rooms is similar to today's universities.

The library also had an acquisitions department, located in the port, as well as a catalog department. In the corridors there were shelves for holding papyrus rolls, which were then called "Biblioteka". Above the scroll was an inscription meaning: "A place for soul healing" (5). Initially, the Great Library was organized by Demetrius Phalareus (350-284 BC), a student of Aristotle (6). Ancient libraries were different from today's. Since there were no bound books at that time, but there were papyrus rolls, the shelves were adapted to the rolls. Papyrus is usually made from reeds, which grew on the banks of the Nile.

After seeing the previous Seven Wonders of the World (Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Colosseum of Rhodes; Statue of Zeus at Olympia; Temple of Diana at Ephesus; Tomb of Mosul; Pyramids of Egypt and Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria) and being enchanted by their monumentality, Alexander wanted the Alexandrian the library becomes one of them. The library certainly deserves this epithet because of its monumentality, even though it was built after the founder's death.

The library has preserved the works of the greatest thinkers of the ancient era. Unfortunately for the general civilization, almost all these works were destroyed forever in great fires. Zahi Hawass (b. 1947), president of the Egyptian Committee for Antiquities, claims that 13 rooms in the Library could accommodate 5,000 students at a time, and the rooms of these rooms were arranged in such a way that the lecturer stood in one, central, elevated place, on the podium . The book storage area consisted of: a collection of used books (Festus) with instructors and translators and a public collection of books intended for public use. The library also had an astronomical observatory.

Library of Alexandria New Library of Alexandria

Photo: Carl Sagan Google Wikipedia

At the time of the creation of the Library of Alexandria, famous people in Athens had their own collections of books in their homes. Among them were: Euripides (480-406 BC); Euclid (325-265 BC); Aristotle and others. Many famous people donated their collections to the Library (7). The Ptolemaic dynasty was also a significant collector, so they donated their collections, and also channeled considerable funds from the royal budget for the same purposes. The library has been the center of Western cultural development for several centuries. Since its founding, Alexandria has been predominantly inhabited by soldiers, sailors, bureaucrats, officials and administration, the business class, craftsmen and the like. Scholars from the Hellenic world came to learn and teach. Paid: linguists, historians, astronomers, geographers, mathematicians, physicists and poets. Beginning with Homer, scholars wrote books and revised existing ones. Among those famous in the Library were: Archimedes (287-212 BC) and Euclid, who wrote his book Elements there. Legend has it that Ptolemy II forced Jewish scholars to translate the Bible from Hebrew to Greek (8). Ellen Brundige (9) says that in that cosmopolitan city, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans and Jews did not live in the best coexistence, but the Museum and Library were the ideal place for them to meet and exchange knowledge. She also states that Demetrius, after organizing the Library, handed it over to Ptolemy II Philadelphus Soter in 283 BC. (9).

It is recorded that the first manager of the Library of Alexandria was Zenodotus from 285 to 270 BC, who was chosen by the court, who applied Aristotle's rules of operation and established alphabetical designation. Then there were: Callimachus from 260 to 240 BC, Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), From 240 to 205 BC, Aristophanes from 200 to 185 B.C. And after the Roman occupation, the library was managed by soldiers. One of them was Tiberius Claudius Balbilus (20-79 BC) (26).

The number of books and/or papyri in the Library is stated differently in different sources. While some sources indicate that there were 700,000 (10), others claim that there were 500,000 or 600,000 (8), and Carl Sagan (1934-1996) even states that there were a million (11). Barbara Krasner-Kait (12) states in her paper that the Great Library of Alexandria was founded around 300 BC, when King Ptolemy I asked: "How many rolls of papyrus do we have ''? Aristotle's student Demetrius of Phalerum had an answer and proposed the establishment of a library that would contain copies of all the world's books. Ptolemy and his successors wanted the entire collection of Latin, Buddhist, Persian, Jewish, and Egyptian books to be translated into Greek. There is also a story about how Ptolemy the Third (282-221 BC) treated the Athenians by borrowing the original books from them, copies were copied and returned to the authors and the originals were kept in the library, with a certain compensation in silver. The older the books, the more valuable they were. It is said that the Library at that time had about 750,000 papyri (9). Besides the Ptolemaic dynasty, Pergamus Eumenes 283-263 BC, who was fascinated by literature and science, also enriched the Library. The first four rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty were intellectuals. The Library of Alexandria became the place of constant work and creation of many ancient Greek scientists, such as Erasistratus (304-250 BC) and Praxagoras, who opened the first medical school in Alexandria, and Herophilus (335-280 BC ); Cleopatra; Pilinos; Chrysippus (280-206 BC); Euclid; Aristarchus of Samosa (320-250 BC) and others. Egyptian pharaohs paid them to support their entire family while they lived and worked in the library. Pharaoh Ptolemy III (24) and the Library returned their copies. This pharaoh Ptolemy III, son of Ptolemy II Soter, is the founder of a sister library in the Serapeion. (8). Books were collected very intensively with good payments from the kingdom, and good books were traveled all over the world, mainly to Rhodes and Athens. Books were confiscated from ships visiting Alexandria, and there was a great deal of trade between East and West. This exchange took place mainly between the mainland and the island of Pharos.

As a scientific institution, the Library of Alexandria was filled with new works in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences and others. The methods of work and the results obtained were first set as empirical standards, and then subjected to the most severe tests of serious criticism. After all these checks, several copies of the text were made and handed over to scholars, royalty and rich libraries around the world. In this way, certain revenues were generated for the Library. The publishers were prominent figures who also worked on Homeric texts, and the most famous of the publishers were called the Chief Librarians.

After its construction and completion, the Library had books from Assyria, Greece, Persia, Egypt, India and other countries. Over 100 scientists lived and worked in the Museum, engaged in research work, taught students, wrote books and translated documents (13). When it was built, the Library contained all the knowledge of the old age, and when it was destroyed, nothing remained of it (14). The Library of Alexandria was not the first, but it was the largest (24).

Destruction of the Library

Many authors generally agree that the Library of Alexandria suffered greater destruction and that the fires of 48 BC, 391 and 642 (by the Romans; Christians and Muslims) were catastrophic. The destruction of the Library of Alexandria is considered one of the greatest crimes against human civilization and a loss for all mankind (7:10; 13:24). During its existence, the library became a symbol of knowledge, and its destroyers ignored all civilizational progress and were the greatest barbarians of mankind.

The Library of Alexandria rose to fame during the reigns of the first three Ptolemies, during which Alexandria became the most famous scientific city in the world. However, during the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator (238-205 BC) there were protests by the local population in Egypt against Greek rule. During the reign of Ptolemy the Fifth Epiphanes (210-180 BC), Egypt lost most of its territory in the Mediterranean. Then in 145 BC civil war broke out between the brothers and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes (182-116 BC) became king and persecuted the Alexandrian scholars for siding with his brother. Then the importance of the Library declined, and the influence of Rome became more and more important (24). With Caesar's victory, he did not annex Egypt, but proclaimed Cleopatra as queen. After the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC, control of the Roman Empire was assumed by Caesar's adopted son Octavian (63 BC) (19). Octavian ruled the West and Rome, and Mark Antony ruled the East, where he allied himself with Cleopatra (24).

The first destruction of the Library is attributed to Julius Caesar (101-44 BC), during his conquest of Alexandria in 48-47 BC. While Caesar was spending time with Cleopatra in her royal quarters, his fleet was surrounded by Egyptian ships, so he ordered his ships burned, which spread the fire to Egyptian as well as the surrounding harbor facilities. . The fire also engulfed the Library, which could not be saved. Bede (5) in his description says that the Romans were civilized, and their most important general was responsible for the greatest act of vandalism against ancient art. 400,000 original papyri and books perished in the flames without Caesar himself deeming it necessary to even mention the event in his memoirs. Even Cicero (106-43 BC), who normally dislike Caesar, does not mention the burning of the Library. It is indicative that the Vatican keeps apocryphal documents in the highest secrecy, inaccessible to the world public. There is a good chance that the information about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria is hidden among these documents, precisely because they were destroyed by a Roman general. Strabo (63 BC - 23 AD) lived in Alexandria, described the Palace and the Museum in detail, without mentioning the Library (5), from which we can conclude that libraries did not even exist at that time. He wrote that the Roman occupation of Egypt brought peace, prosperity and development to Alexandria, although many authors disagree that this was the case. Dr. Mostafa El-Abbadi writes that Strabo did not even have access to the Royal Library. Plutarch (46-120 AD) and Dio Cassius (163-235 AD), however, confirm the destruction of the Library, and Gellius (23-79 AD) even claims that it was in a fire destroyed 700,000. And Matthew Battles (25) states that 300,000 books were burned in Caesar's burning of the library. Plutarch in his Life of Antony writes that Mark Antony presented 200,000 books to Cleopatra, which were moved from Pergamum (24) and placed in the Brukion Library during its restoration. These data date from the period 150 years after Caesar, so the author Edward Parsons states that Cicero, Strabo, Levi, Lycanus, Florus, Suctonius, Appian, and even Mark Antony himself knew nothing about the burning of the Library and Museum (7; 10;) . It is assumed that some books were stored in warehouses in the port, so they were among the first to be captured and destroyed by fire. Fortunately, after Caesar's burning, the Library revived and experienced considerable prosperity.

As a scientific institution, the Library of Alexandria was filled with new works in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences and others. The methods of work and the results obtained were first set as empirical standards, and then subjected to the most severe tests of serious criticism. After all these checks, several copies of the text were made and handed over to scholars, royalty and rich libraries around the world. In this way, certain revenues were generated for the Library. The publishers were prominent figures who also worked on Homeric texts, and the most famous of the publishers were called the Chief Librarians.

After its construction and completion, the Library had books from Assyria, Greece, Persia, Egypt, India and other countries. Over 100 scientists lived and worked in the Museum, engaged in research work, taught students, wrote books and translated documents (13). When it was built, the Library contained all the knowledge of the old age, and when it was destroyed, nothing remained of it (14). The Library of Alexandria was not the first, but it was the largest (24).

The New Library of Alexandria

The latest Alexandrian library was built as a 10-story building, one-third of which is below sea level, at an angle of 8° on the surface, without windows, and in no way resembles the original library. The designer is a Norwegian, who wanted to put Alexandria back on the world cultural map with this project (14). The city of Alexandria was a world cultural center for two centuries before Christ and two centuries after it.

The renovated Library, designed by the Norwegian company Snohetta, was built in the shape of a disk, tilted towards the Mediterranean, as a symbol that Egypt illuminates the world, or that Alexandria is a window to the world, and serves for study, tolerance , dialogue and understanding. The library now has: a library for 4,000,000 books and 50,000 maps; Internet center and its archive; Six specialized libraries for: audio-visual materials, for children, for young people, for microforms, for rare books and special collections; three antiquities museums; manuscripts; history of science; planetarium; exhibition research; two permanent exhibitions; six art galleries; a conference center for a thousand people; seven scientific institutes for manuscripts, heritage documentation, calligraphy and writing, information sciences, Mediterranean and Alexandrian studies, an art center, a scientific research center and a tribune. Although the Library has been completely renovated, it lacks works that have disappeared forever, which is a big drawback. The construction of the new Library began in 1995, it cost 220 million dollars, and it was officially opened on October 16, 2002. It covers 45,000 m2, and the seven-story library has 69,000 m2, with 3,500 seats and 100,000 manuscripts. With 30 databases of electronic devices, 10,000 rare books, 200,000 diskettes and 50,000 video diskettes. At the time of its establishment, it employed 578 people. The complex has a 3,200-seat conference center, a science planetarium, a school of information studies, a calligraphy institute and a museum (17). The library has a robotic book storage system (18), with a state-of-the-art fire protection system. Since 2008, the Library of Alexandria has once again become the center of Hellenic culture (19). The Alexander Onassis Foundation is part of these efforts for Greek culture, and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was one of the great admirers and supporters of the Library's work (19), as well as UNESCO.

From the history of ancient libraries

The first beginnings of collecting written documents are almost as old as human civilization. About 30,000 clay tablets, more than 5,000 years old, were found in Mesopotamia and are considered the oldest form of librarianship. Clay tablets flourished during the reign of Ashurbanipal II (? -630 BC), a seventh-century BC Assyrian ruler in the city of Nineveh, where about 25,000 tablets were found (25). They were classified by subject and even had a catalog. Other libraries in Mesopotamia were organized in a similar way. 3.5 millennium BC tiles were found in Nippur. Archaeologists have discovered the first papyrus rolls from the period 1300-1200 BC in the Egyptian cities of Amarni and Thebes, as well as thousands of clay tablets of the Assyrian ruler, King Senairim (704-681 BC) in Nineveh (12). These first collections were called libraries. Regardless of whether the collections were private or public, they were built, destroyed and rebuilt.

Papyrus rolls were made of strips, which were pressed and dried, and slats were attached to the ends, on which the leaves were wound. It is written from right to left, in the form of a stanza. The ink is made from carbon black. After the reading, the rolls are rewound to the beginning. Some papyrus rolls were up to 50 m long, and for practical handling some books consisted of several rolls. In the second century BC in Pergamum, in today's Turkish province of Izmir, writing began on sheepskin. This made progress, because such books were easier to use and were written on both sides. The local king Eumenes II (reigned 197-159 BC) wanted to create a center of Greek culture, so he built a library, in competition with the Library of Alexandria. At that time Ptolemy Petius Epiphanes banned the export of papyrus to Pergamum, although this did not stop the importance of the library there. In the first century of our era, the Chinese made paper, but it did not reach the Arab world until around 800 AD. At the end of the eighth century, the Abbasid dynasty after Christ made Baghdad a world center of research. In the House of Wisdom, the mathematician al-Khwarizmi (800-847) adapted the Hindu numerals as Arabic numerals, which are still in use today (1, 25). Also, the three Nestorian brothers measured the length of the solar year with an astronomical accuracy of 365,242 days (25, 28), which was achieved only by Milutin Milanković (1879-1958).

The first collections of records came from the Middle East, and the Greeks developed them the most

The first collections of records came from the Middle East, and the Greeks developed them the most because they were most interested in intellectual life. In Greece, libraries flourished on both private and public property. Authors wrote on various subjects, copyists reproduced them, and merchants sold them. The first public library in Athens appeared in the fourth century BC. Aristotle is known as the owner of the largest private collection, about 400 papyri (8). As for Aristotle, Strabo said that he was the first to suggest to the Egyptian kings how to organize a library, which was done by his student Demertius. And it is known that Aristotle was also the teacher of Alexander the Great. When Alexander conquered the East Indies, he ordered his administrators to collect and study the laws of the countries he conquered, in order to facilitate their rule.

Ptolemy's original library had an enormous scientific and cultural effect on the city of Alexandria. From 306 BC the works of the great Greek scientists began to be collected in order to educate their people and begin the "universal synthesis of knowledge". It was the most creative intellectual period in the history of mankind, when the Greeks wrote books on philosophy, mathematics, medicine, natural sciences, history and literature, as the foundations of Western culture (14). The works of Plato (428-347 BC), Aristotle, Sophocles (496-406 BC), Euripides (480-406), Hippocrates, Euclid and other Greek greats became a magnet for intellectuals who came to Alexandria, the city of science. Prominent scientists included Archimedes (287-212 BC) and Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BC). Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a geocentric model of the universe, which was not accepted for the next 18 centuries. Of his works, only the work "On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon '' survived the fire. Only Copernicus (1473-1543) accepted the heliocentric system of the universe, and Aristarchus accepted it as correct. To date, the library has not found equal replacements, until Kepler (1571-1630), Newton (1642-1727), Tesla (1856-1943) and Einstein (1879-1955). And as Moassen Zaran, the leader of the team building the new library, said, the New Library should become "Alexandria's New Lighthouse."

Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) calculated the size of the Earth in the Library and made a map of the continents (24), claiming that India could be reached by sailing west from Spain. Hipparchus (190-120 BC) Discovered that the stars moved; Euclid created geometry from which mankind learned for the next 23 centuries, and it later sparked works and discoveries. His work Elements consists of 13 books. He lived in the era of Ptolemy the First, and taught the son of Ptolemy the Second. Archimedes defined the theory of weight reduction of a body immersed in liquids and gasses. He is also known as an engineer and mathematician. Although Hippocrates (460-377 BC) lived before the construction of Alexandria, his medical works were located in the Library (24). Galles wrote the fundamentals of medicine and anatomy, which have dominated medicine to this day. Heropilus (330-260 BC) and Erasistratus (330-260) stood out in the field of medical sciences. Herophilus established that the brain, not the heart, is the center of intelligence. Zenodotus (310-240 BC) was the first high official of the Library, around 280 BC, during the period of the first two rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty (20). Callimachus (310-240), a poet from Cyrene, today's Shahat in Libya, is considered the founder of the Library's scientific work. Aristophanes (257-185 BC), a grammarian, studied Homer. Scientist Dimim Halcenter brought the Library to its peak with his work in the era of Cicero (106-43 BC) and Augustus (63 BC to 144 AD). In addition to the above, a large number of other great men came out of the Library of Alexandria (1). Alexandria was a city where Greeks, Egyptians, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, Persians, Phoenicians, Italians, Gauls, Iberians and others met, traded and exchanged ideas. Alexandria thus became the first "cosmopolitan city" (11). Carl Sagan says of the Library of Alexandria that it was the brain and heart of the ancient world (11) and became the capital of book publishing. Books were handwritten and very expensive back then. The Old Testament was also published in the Library of Alexandria. Carl Sagan finds that Copernicus (1473-1543) rediscovered the works in Alexandria (13), as the author claims in "Traces of the Great Discoveries" (2). The last scientist in the Library, mathematician, astronomer, physicist and philosopher was Hypatia. After the long rule of Rome and slavery, the Catholic Church and pagan influence grew stronger. Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria (378-444 AD) met Hypatia, stripped her to the bare skin and stripped her flesh to the bones until she died, and this same archbishop became pope in 412 AD and was later canonized (11 ). Even after this, let every reader judge the morals of the Catholic Church and it will be clear to him why the Vatican continues to keep documents about the atrocities of its rulers from the eyes of the world public.

Alexander the Great named the city Alexandria in 331 BC, and died in Iraq in 323 BC. He was buried in Memphis and was later moved and buried in Alexandria. Before his death, he was defeated by the Persian king Darius III (380-330 BC). The Ptolemaic dynasty ruled Egypt for the next 300 years (323-30 BC). Cleopatra VII herself killed her older sister and together with Caesar waged war against her younger brother in order to preserve the throne (21). After Caesar, Cleopatra killed herself along with Mark Antony after being defeated by Octavian. Their love story was immortalized by William Shakespeare (1564-1616) in The Tragedy of Antony and Cleopatra (21). In 30 BC, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, and the city of Alexandria continued to develop as a center of science until the fourth century, when the Library burned again in 391. Finally, the Arab conquest in AD 642 put an end to Greco-Roman dominance, and the center of scientific research was shifted to Baghdad.

The Museum and the Library of Alexandria are considered to have revolutionized the world to a degree not achieved during two millennia of human civilization. The real tragedy of the destruction of the Library of Alexandria is not in who and how much to condemn for the evil deed, but in how much old history, literature and scientific knowledge has been lost forever for the human race. And as can be seen from the many data, there are many doubts and contradictory data, so the obstacles are not only due to deficiencies but also from too many different data. And with all this, the biggest secrets will remain hidden in the apocrypha of the Vatican for a long time.

Literature

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2) Симо Јелача: Tрагови великих открића. http://www.Teslasociety.ch

3) Kitty Ferguson: Measuring the Universe; Our Historic Quest to Chart the Horizons

of Space and Time, Walker & Company, New York 1999

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12 Barbara Krasner-Khait:The History of the Library. http://www.history-magazine.com

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чувене институцује, 2007

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